1 Executive Summary
- 1.1 Market overview
- Exhibit 01: Executive Summary – Chart on Market Overview
- Exhibit 02: Executive Summary – Data Table on Market Overview
- Exhibit 03: Executive Summary – Chart on Country Market Characteristics
- Exhibit 04: Executive Summary – Chart on Market by Geography
- Exhibit 05: Executive Summary – Chart on Market Segmentation by End-user
- Exhibit 06: Executive Summary – Chart on Market Segmentation by Service
- Exhibit 07: Executive Summary – Chart on Incremental Growth
- Exhibit 08: Executive Summary – Data Table on Incremental Growth
- Exhibit 09: Executive Summary – Chart on Vendor Market Positioning
2 Market Landscape
- 2.1 Market ecosystem
- Exhibit 10: Parent market
- Exhibit 11: Market Characteristics
3 Market Sizing
- 3.1 Market definition
- Exhibit 12: Offerings of vendors included in the market definition
- 3.2 Market segment analysis
- Exhibit 13: Market segments
- 3.4 Market outlook: Forecast for 2023-2028
- Exhibit 14: Chart on Europe - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 15: Data Table on Regional - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 16: Chart on Europe: Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- Exhibit 17: Data Table on Regional - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
4 Historic Market Size
- 4.1 Third-party logistics (3PL) market in Europe 2018 - 2022
- Exhibit 18: Historic Market Size – Data Table on third-party logistics (3pl) market in Europe 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)
- 4.2 End-user Segment Analysis 2018 - 2022
- Exhibit 19: Historic Market Size – End-user Segment 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)
- 4.3 Service Segment Analysis 2018 - 2022
- Exhibit 20: Historic Market Size – Service Segment 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)
- 4.4 Geography Segment Analysis 2018 - 2022
- Exhibit 21: Historic Market Size – Geography Segment 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)
5 Five Forces Analysis
- 5.1 Five forces summary
- Exhibit 22: Five forces analysis - Comparison between 2023 and 2028
- 5.2 Bargaining power of buyers
- Exhibit 23: Chart on Bargaining power of buyers – Impact of key factors 2023 and 2028
- 5.3 Bargaining power of suppliers
- Exhibit 24: Bargaining power of suppliers – Impact of key factors in 2023 and 2028
- 5.4 Threat of new entrants
- Exhibit 25: Threat of new entrants – Impact of key factors in 2023 and 2028
- 5.5 Threat of substitutes
- Exhibit 26: Threat of substitutes – Impact of key factors in 2023 and 2028
- 5.6 Threat of rivalry
- Exhibit 27: Threat of rivalry – Impact of key factors in 2023 and 2028
- 5.7 Market condition
- Exhibit 28: Chart on Market condition - Five forces 2023 and 2028
6 Market Segmentation by End-user
- 6.1 Market segments
- Chart on End-user - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on End-user - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- 6.2 Comparison by End-user
- Chart on Comparison by End-user
- Data Table on Comparison by End-user
- 6.3 Manufacturing - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Manufacturing - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Manufacturing - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Manufacturing - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Manufacturing - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 6.4 Retail - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Retail - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Retail - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Retail - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Retail - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 6.5 Consumer goods - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Consumer goods - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Consumer goods - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Consumer goods - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Consumer goods - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 6.6 Healthcare - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Healthcare - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Healthcare - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Healthcare - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Healthcare - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 6.7 Food and beverages and others - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Food and beverages and others - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Food and beverages and others - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Food and beverages and others - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Food and beverages and others - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 6.8 Market opportunity by End-user
- Market opportunity by End-user ($ billion)
- Data Table on Market opportunity by End-user ($ billion)
7 Market Segmentation by Service
- 7.1 Market segments
- Chart on Service - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Service - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- 7.2 Comparison by Service
- Chart on Comparison by Service
- Data Table on Comparison by Service
- 7.3 Transportation - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Transportation - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Transportation - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Transportation - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Transportation - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 7.4 Warehousing and distribution - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Warehousing and distribution - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Warehousing and distribution - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Warehousing and distribution - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Warehousing and distribution - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 7.5 Inventory management and others - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Inventory management and others - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Inventory management and others - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Inventory management and others - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Inventory management and others - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 7.6 Market opportunity by Service
- Market opportunity by Service ($ billion)
- Data Table on Market opportunity by Service ($ billion)
8 Market Segmentation by Mode of Transport
- 8.1 Market segments
- Chart on Mode of Transport - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Mode of Transport - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- 8.2 Comparison by Mode of Transport
- Chart on Comparison by Mode of Transport
- Data Table on Comparison by Mode of Transport
- 8.3 Roadways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Roadways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Roadways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Roadways - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Roadways - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 8.4 Railways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Railways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Railways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Railways - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Railways - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 8.5 Airways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Airways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Airways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Airways - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Airways - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 8.6 Seaways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Seaways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Seaways - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Seaways - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Seaways - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 8.7 Market opportunity by Mode of Transport
- Market opportunity by Mode of Transport ($ billion)
- Data Table on Market opportunity by Mode of Transport ($ billion)
9 Market Segmentation by Technology
- 9.1 Market segments
- Chart on Technology - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Technology - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- 9.2 Comparison by Technology
- Chart on Comparison by Technology
- Data Table on Comparison by Technology
- 9.3 IoT & AI Integration - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on IoT & AI Integration - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on IoT & AI Integration - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on IoT & AI Integration - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on IoT & AI Integration - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 9.4 Blockchain - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Blockchain - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Blockchain - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Blockchain - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Blockchain - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 9.5 Automation & Robotics - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Automation & Robotics - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Automation & Robotics - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Automation & Robotics - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Automation & Robotics - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 9.6 Data Analytics - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Data Analytics - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Data Analytics - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Data Analytics - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Data Analytics - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 9.7 Supply Chain Visibility - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Supply Chain Visibility - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Supply Chain Visibility - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Supply Chain Visibility - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Supply Chain Visibility - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 9.8 Market opportunity by Technology
- Market opportunity by Technology ($ billion)
- Data Table on Market opportunity by Technology ($ billion)
10 Market Segmentation by Consumer Type
- 10.1 Market segments
- Chart on Consumer Type - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Consumer Type - Market share (2023-2028) (%)
- 10.2 Comparison by Consumer Type
- Chart on Comparison by Consumer Type
- Data Table on Comparison by Consumer Type
- 10.3 Large Enterprises - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Large Enterprises - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Large Enterprises - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Large Enterprises - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Large Enterprises - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 10.4 Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) - Market size and forecast (2023-2028)
- Chart on Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Data Table on Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) - Market size and forecast (2023-2028) ($ billion)
- Chart on Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- Data Table on Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) - Year-over-year growth (2023-2028) (%)
- 10.5 Market opportunity by Consumer Type
- Market opportunity by Consumer Type ($ billion)
- Data Table on Market opportunity by Consumer Type ($ billion)
8 Customer Landscape
- 8.1 Customer landscape overview
- Exhibit 73: Analysis of price sensitivity, lifecycle, customer purchase basket, adoption rates, and purchase criteria
9 Geographic Landscape
- 9.1 Geographic segmentation
- Exhibit 74: Chart on Market share by geography - 2023-2028 (%)
- Exhibit 75: Data Table on Market share by geography - 2023-2028 (%)
- 9.2 Geographic comparison
- Exhibit 76: Chart on Geographic comparison
- Exhibit 77: Data Table on Geographic comparison
- 9.3 Germany - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
- Exhibit 78: Chart on Germany - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 79: Data Table on Germany - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 80: Chart on Germany - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- Exhibit 81: Data Table on Germany - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- 9.4 France - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
- Exhibit 82: Chart on France - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 83: Data Table on France - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 84: Chart on France - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- Exhibit 85: Data Table on France - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- 9.5 UK - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
- Exhibit 86: Chart on UK - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 87: Data Table on UK - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 88: Chart on UK - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- Exhibit 89: Data Table on UK - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- 9.6 Italy - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
- Exhibit 90: Chart on Italy - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 91: Data Table on Italy - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 92: Chart on Italy - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- Exhibit 93: Data Table on Italy - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- 9.7 Rest of Europe - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
- Exhibit 94: Chart on Rest of Europe - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 95: Data Table on Rest of Europe - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
- Exhibit 96: Chart on Rest of Europe - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- Exhibit 97: Data Table on Rest of Europe - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
- 9.8 Market opportunity by geography
- Exhibit 98: Market opportunity by geography ($ billion)
- Exhibit 99: Data Table on Market opportunity by geography ($ billion)
10 Drivers, Challenges, and Trends
- 10.3 Impact of drivers and challenges
- Exhibit 100: Impact of drivers and challenges in 2023 and 2028
11 Vendor Landscape
- 11.2 Vendor landscape
- Exhibit 101: Overview on Criticality of inputs and Factors of differentiation
- 11.3 Landscape disruption
- Exhibit 102: Overview on factors of disruption
- 11.4 Industry risks
- Exhibit 103: Impact of key risks on business
15 Competitive Analysis
- 15.2 Market positioning of companies
- Matrix on companies position and classification
- 15.3 A.P. Moller – Maersk
- A.P. Moller – Maersk - Overview
- A.P. Moller – Maersk - Product / Service
- A.P. Moller – Maersk - Key offerings
- 15.4 Agility Public Warehousing Co. K.S.C.P
- Agility Public Warehousing Co. K.S.C.P - Overview
- Agility Public Warehousing Co. K.S.C.P - Product / Service
- Agility Public Warehousing Co. K.S.C.P - Key offerings
- 15.5 C.H. Robinson Worldwide, Inc.
- C.H. Robinson Worldwide, Inc. - Overview
- C.H. Robinson Worldwide, Inc. - Product / Service
- C.H. Robinson Worldwide, Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.6 CEVA Logistics
- CEVA Logistics - Overview
- CEVA Logistics - Product / Service
- CEVA Logistics - Key offerings
- 15.7 DB Schenker
- DB Schenker - Overview
- DB Schenker - Product / Service
- DB Schenker - Key offerings
- 15.8 DHL Group
- DHL Group - Overview
- DHL Group - Product / Service
- DHL Group - Key offerings
- 15.9 DSV A/S
- DSV A/S - Overview
- DSV A/S - Product / Service
- DSV A/S - Key offerings
- 15.10 FedEx Corporation
- FedEx Corporation - Overview
- FedEx Corporation - Product / Service
- FedEx Corporation - Key offerings
- 15.11 Geodis
- Geodis - Overview
- Geodis - Product / Service
- Geodis - Key offerings
- 15.12 Hellmann Worldwide Logistics
- Hellmann Worldwide Logistics - Overview
- Hellmann Worldwide Logistics - Product / Service
- Hellmann Worldwide Logistics - Key offerings
- 15.13 Kuehne+Nagel International AG
- Kuehne+Nagel International AG - Overview
- Kuehne+Nagel International AG - Product / Service
- Kuehne+Nagel International AG - Key offerings
- 15.14 Nippon Express
- Nippon Express - Overview
- Nippon Express - Product / Service
- Nippon Express - Key offerings
- 15.15 Nagel-Group
- Nagel-Group - Overview
- Nagel-Group - Product / Service
- Nagel-Group - Key offerings
- 15.16 Panalpina World Transport
- Panalpina World Transport - Overview
- Panalpina World Transport - Product / Service
- Panalpina World Transport - Key offerings
- 15.17 Ryder System, Inc.
- Ryder System, Inc. - Overview
- Ryder System, Inc. - Product / Service
- Ryder System, Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.18 Schenker AG
- Schenker AG - Overview
- Schenker AG - Product / Service
- Schenker AG - Key offerings
- 15.19 Sinotrans Limited
- Sinotrans Limited - Overview
- Sinotrans Limited - Product / Service
- Sinotrans Limited - Key offerings
- 15.20 TNT Express
- TNT Express - Overview
- TNT Express - Product / Service
- TNT Express - Key offerings
- 15.21 United Parcel Service, Inc. (UPS)
- United Parcel Service, Inc. (UPS) - Overview
- United Parcel Service, Inc. (UPS) - Product / Service
- United Parcel Service, Inc. (UPS) - Key offerings
- 15.22 XPO Logistics, Inc.
- XPO Logistics, Inc. - Overview
- XPO Logistics, Inc. - Product / Service
- XPO Logistics, Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.23 AP Moller Maersk AS
- AP Moller Maersk AS - Overview
- AP Moller Maersk AS - Product / Service
- AP Moller Maersk AS - Key offerings
- 15.24 Baltic Logistic Solutions
- Baltic Logistic Solutions - Overview
- Baltic Logistic Solutions - Product / Service
- Baltic Logistic Solutions - Key offerings
- 15.25 C H Robinson Worldwide Inc.
- C H Robinson Worldwide Inc. - Overview
- C H Robinson Worldwide Inc. - Product / Service
- C H Robinson Worldwide Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.26 CMA CGM SA Group
- CMA CGM SA Group - Overview
- CMA CGM SA Group - Product / Service
- CMA CGM SA Group - Key offerings
- 15.27 DB Schenker
- DB Schenker - Overview
- DB Schenker - Product / Service
- DB Schenker - Key offerings
- 15.28 Deutsche Post AG
- Deutsche Post AG - Overview
- Deutsche Post AG - Product / Service
- Deutsche Post AG - Key offerings
- 15.29 DSV AS
- DSV AS - Overview
- DSV AS - Product / Service
- DSV AS - Key offerings
- 15.30 Expeditors International of Washington Inc.
- Expeditors International of Washington Inc. - Overview
- Expeditors International of Washington Inc. - Product / Service
- Expeditors International of Washington Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.31 FedEx Corp.
- FedEx Corp. - Overview
- FedEx Corp. - Product / Service
- FedEx Corp. - Key offerings
- 15.32 FM LOGISTIC CORP
- FM LOGISTIC CORP - Overview
- FM LOGISTIC CORP - Product / Service
- FM LOGISTIC CORP - Key offerings
- 15.33 GEODIS
- GEODIS - Overview
- GEODIS - Product / Service
- GEODIS - Key offerings
- 15.34 Ital Logistics Ltd.
- Ital Logistics Ltd. - Overview
- Ital Logistics Ltd. - Product / Service
- Ital Logistics Ltd. - Key offerings
- 15.35 Kintetsu World Express Inc.
- Kintetsu World Express Inc. - Overview
- Kintetsu World Express Inc. - Product / Service
- Kintetsu World Express Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.36 Sanmina Corp.
- Sanmina Corp. - Overview
- Sanmina Corp. - Product / Service
- Sanmina Corp. - Key offerings
- 15.37 United Parcel Service Inc.
- United Parcel Service Inc. - Overview
- United Parcel Service Inc. - Product / Service
- United Parcel Service Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.38 XPO Inc.
- XPO Inc. - Overview
- XPO Inc. - Product / Service
- XPO Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.39 ACP Freight Services Ltd.
- ACP Freight Services Ltd. - Overview
- ACP Freight Services Ltd. - Product / Service
- ACP Freight Services Ltd. - Key offerings
- 15.40 FourKites Inc.
- FourKites Inc. - Overview
- FourKites Inc. - Product / Service
- FourKites Inc. - Key offerings
- 15.41 H. P. Therkelsen AS
- H. P. Therkelsen AS - Overview
- H. P. Therkelsen AS - Product / Service
- H. P. Therkelsen AS - Key offerings
- 15.42 Huktra UK Ltd.
- Huktra UK Ltd. - Overview
- Huktra UK Ltd. - Product / Service
- Huktra UK Ltd. - Key offerings
- 15.43 Imperial Logistics Ltd
- Imperial Logistics Ltd - Overview
- Imperial Logistics Ltd - Product / Service
- Imperial Logistics Ltd - Key offerings
- 15.44 Jordon Freight Ltd.
- Jordon Freight Ltd. - Overview
- Jordon Freight Ltd. - Product / Service
- Jordon Freight Ltd. - Key offerings
- 15.45 hansa express logistics GmbH
- hansa express logistics GmbH - Overview
- hansa express logistics GmbH - Product / Service
- hansa express logistics GmbH - Key offerings
- 15.46 NTG Nordic Transport Group AS
- NTG Nordic Transport Group AS - Overview
- NTG Nordic Transport Group AS - Product / Service
- NTG Nordic Transport Group AS - Key offerings
13 Appendix
- 13.2 Inclusions and exclusions checklist
- Exhibit 166: Inclusions checklist
- Exhibit 167: Exclusions checklist
- 13.3 Currency conversion rates for US$
- Exhibit 168: Currency conversion rates for US$
- 13.4 Research methodology
- Exhibit 169: Research methodology
- Exhibit 170: Validation techniques employed for market sizing
- Exhibit 171: Information sources
- 13.5 List of abbreviations
- Exhibit 172: List of abbreviations
Research Framework
Technavio presents a detailed picture of the market by way of study, synthesis, and summation of data from multiple sources. The analysts have presented the various facets of the market with a particular focus on identifying the key industry influencers. The data thus presented is comprehensive, reliable, and the result of extensive research, both primary and secondary.
INFORMATION SOURCES
Primary sources
- Manufacturers and suppliers
- Channel partners
- Industry experts
- Strategic decision makers
Secondary sources
- Industry journals and periodicals
- Government data
- Financial reports of key industry players
- Historical data
- Press releases
DATA ANALYSIS
Data Synthesis
- Collation of data
- Estimation of key figures
- Analysis of derived insights
Data Validation
- Triangulation with data models
- Reference against proprietary databases
- Corroboration with industry experts
REPORT WRITING
Qualitative
- Market drivers
- Market challenges
- Market trends
- Five forces analysis
Quantitative
- Market size and forecast
- Market segmentation
- Geographical insights
- Competitive landscape
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